China

rice, wheat, potatoes, sorghum, peanuts, tea, millet, barley, cotton, other fibers, oilseed; pork and other livestock products; fish

revenues: $NA expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA

1 yuan (¥) = 10 jiao

$131 billion (1997 est.)

recipient: ODA, $1.977 billion (1993)

Beginning in late 1978 the Chinese leadership has been trying to move the economy from a sluggish Soviet-style centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented economy but still within a rigid political framework of Communist Party control. To this end the authorities switched to a system of household responsibility in agriculture in place of the old collectivization, increased the authority of local officials and plant managers in industry, permitted a wide variety of small-scale enterprise in services and light manufacturing, and opened the economy to increased foreign trade and investment. The result has been a quadrupling of GDP since 1978. Agricultural output doubled in the 1980s, and industry also posted major gains, especially in coastal areas near Hong Kong and opposite Taiwan, where foreign investment helped spur output of both domestic and export goods. On the darker side, the leadership has often experienced in its hybrid system the worst results of socialism (bureaucracy, lassitude, corruption) and of capitalism (windfall gains and stepped-up inflation). Beijing thus has periodically backtracked, retightening central controls at intervals. In 1992-97 annual growth of GDP accelerated, particularly in the coastal areas-averaging about 10% annually according to official figures. In late 1993 China's leadership approved additional long-term reforms aimed at giving still more play to market-oriented institutions and at strengthening the center's control over the financial system; state enterprises would continue to dominate many key industries in what was now termed "a socialist market economy." In 1995-97 inflation dropped sharply, reflecting tighter monetary policies and stronger measures to control food prices. At the same time, the government struggled to (a) collect revenues due from provinces, businesses, and individuals; (b) reduce corruption and other economic crimes; and (c) keep afloat the large state-owned enterprises, most of which had not participated in the vigorous expansion of the economy and many of which have been losing the ability to pay full wages and pensions. From 60 to 100 million surplus rural workers are adrift between the villages and the cities, many subsisting through part-time low-paying jobs. Popular resistance, changes in central policy, and loss of authority by rural cadres have weakened China's population control program, which is essential to maintaining growth in living standards. Another long-term threat to continued rapid economic growth is the deterioration in the environment, notably air pollution, soil erosion, and the steady fall of the water table especially in the north. China continues to lose arable land because of erosion and economic development; furthermore, the regime gives insufficient priority to agricultural research. The next few years may witness increasing tensions between a highly centralized political system and an increasingly decentralized economic system. Rapid economic growth likely will continue but at a declining rate. Hong Kong's reversion on 1 July 1997 to Chinese administration will strengthen the already close ties between the two economies.

250 million kW (1997 est.)

1,100 kWh (1997 est.)

1.135 trillion kWh (1997 est.)

yuan (¥) per US$1-8.2796 (December 1997), 8.2898 (1997), 8.3142 (1996), 8.3514 (1995), 8.6187 (1994), 5.7620 (1993) note: beginning 1 January 1994, the People's Bank of China quotes the midpoint rate against the US dollar based on the previous day's prevailing rate in the interbank foreign exchange market

total value: $182.7 billion (f.o.b., 1997) commodities: electrical machinery, clothing, footwear, toys, mineral fuels, leather, plastics, fabrics (1997) partners: Hong Kong, US, Japan, South Korea, Germany, Netherlands (1997)

calendar year Communications

purchasing power parity-$4.25 trillion (1997 estimate as extrapolated from World Bank estimate for 1995 with use of official Chinese growth figures for 1996-97; the result may overstate China's GDP by as much as 25%)

agriculture: 20% industry: 49% services: 31% (1996 est.)

purchasing power parity-$3,460 (1997 est.)

8.8% (1997 est.)

total value: $142.4 billion (c.i.f., 1997) commodities: mechanical appliances, electrical machinery, mineral fuels, plastics, iron and steel, fabrics, cotton and yarn (1997) partners: Japan, Taiwan, US, South Korea, Hong Kong, Germany, Singapore (1997)

13% (1996 est.)

iron and steel, coal, machine building, armaments, textiles and apparel, petroleum, cement, chemical fertilizers, footwear, toys, food processing, autos, consumer electronics, telecommunications

2.8% (1997 est.)

total: 623.9 million (1995) by occupation: agriculture and forestry 53%, industry and commerce 26%, construction and mining 7%, social services 4%, other 10% (1995)

AM 274, FM NA, shortwave 0

216.5 million (1992 est.)

domestic and international services are increasingly available for private use; unevenly distributed domestic system serves principal cities, industrial centers, and most townships domestic: interprovincial fiber-optic trunk lines and cellular telephone systems have been installed; a domestic satellite system with 55 earth stations is in place international: satellite earth stations-5 Intelsat (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean Region) and 1 Inmarsat (Pacific and Indian Ocean Regions); several international fiber-optic links to Japan, South Korea, and Hong Kong

89 million (1997 est.); note-there are 2.5 telephones per 100 urban population and 7.2 telephones per 100 total population

202 (repeaters 2,050)

75 million

officially 4% in urban areas; probably 8%-10%; substantial unemployment and underemployment in rural areas (1997 est.)

total: 9,596,960 sq km land: 9,326,410 sq km water: 270,550 sq km

slightly smaller than the US

extremely diverse; tropical in south to subarctic in north

14,500 km

lowest point: Turpan Pendi -154 m highest point: Mount Everest 8,848 m

air pollution (greenhouse gases, particulates) from the overwhelming use of high-sulfur coal as a fuel, produces acid rain which is damaging forests; water shortages experienced throughout the country, particularly in urban areas and in the north; future growth in water usage threatens to outpace supplies; water pollution from industrial effluents; much of the population does not have access to potable water; less than 10% of sewage receives treatment; deforestation; estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to soil erosion and economic development; desertification; trade in endangered species

party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements

35 00 N, 105 00 E

world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and US)

498,720 sq km (1993 est.)

total: 22,143.34 km border countries: Afghanistan 76 km, Bhutan 470 km, Burma 2,185 km, Hong Kong 30 km, India 3,380 km, Kazakhstan 1,533 km, North Korea 1,416 km, Kyrgyzstan 858 km, Laos 423 km, Macau 0.34 km, Mongolia 4,673 km, Nepal 1,236 km, Pakistan 523 km, Russia (northeast) 3,605 km, Russia (northwest) 40 km, Tajikistan 414 km, Vietnam 1,281 km

arable land: 10% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 43% forests and woodland: 14% other: 33% (1993 est.)

Eastern Asia, bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea and Vietnam

Asia

contiguous zone: 24 nm continental shelf: claim to shallow areas of East China Sea and Yellow Sea territorial sea: 12 nm

frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts

coal, iron ore, petroleum, mercury, tin, tungsten, antimony, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, magnetite, aluminum, lead, zinc, uranium, hydropower potential (world's largest)

mostly mountains, high plateaus, deserts in west; plains, deltas, and hills in east

23 provinces (sheng, singular and plural), 5 autonomous regions* (zizhiqu, singular and plural), and 4 municipalities** (shi, singular and plural); Anhui, Beijing**, Chongqing**, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi*, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol*, Ningxia*, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanghai**, Shanxi, Sichuan, Tianjin**, Xinjiang*, Xizang* (Tibet), Yunnan, Zhejiang note: China considers Taiwan its 23rd province; see separate entry for the special administrative region of Hong Kong

most recent promulgation 4 December 1982

conventional long form: People's Republic of China conventional short form: China local long form: Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo local short form: Zhong Guo abbreviation: PRC

CH

chief of mission: Ambassador James R. SASSER embassy: Xiu Shui Bei Jie 3, 100600 Beijing mailing address: PSC 461, Box 50, FPO AP 96521-0002 telephone: [86] (10) 6532-3831

chief of mission: Ambassador LI Zhaoxing chancery: 2300 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 328-2500 through 2502 consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco

chief of state: President JIANG Zemin (since 27 March 1993) and Vice President HU Jintao (since 16 March 1998) head of government: Premier ZHU Rongji (since 18 March 1998); Vice Premiers QIAN Qichen (since 29 March 1993), LI Lanqing (29 March 1993), WU Bangguo (since 17 March 1995), and WEN Jiabao (since 18 March 1998) cabinet: State Council appointed by the National People's Congress (NPC) elections: president and vice president elected by the National People's Congress for five-year terms; elections last held 16-18 March 1998 (next to be held NA March 2003); premier nominated by the president, confirmed by the National People's Congress election results: JIANG Zemin reelected president by the Ninth National People's Congress with a total of 2,882 votes (36 delegates voted against him, 29 abstained, and 32 did not vote); HU Jintao elected vice president by the Ninth National People's Congress with a total of 2,841 votes (67 delegates voted against him, 39 abstained, and 32 did not vote)

[86] (10) 6532-6422 consulate(s) general: Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Shenyang

red with a large yellow five-pointed star and four smaller yellow five-pointed stars (arranged in a vertical arc toward the middle of the flag) in the upper hoist-side corner

Communist state

221 BC (unification under the Qin or Ch'in Dynasty 221 BC; Qing or Ch'ing Dynasty replaced by the Republic on 12 February 1912; People's Republic established 1 October 1949)

AfDB, APEC, AsDB, BIS (pending member), CCC, ESCAP, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM (observer), PCA, UN, UN Security Council, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)

Supreme People's Court, judges appointed by the National People's Congress

a complex amalgam of custom and statute, largely criminal law; rudimentary civil code in effect since 1 January 1987; new legal codes in effect since 1 January 1980; continuing efforts are being made to improve civil, administrative, criminal, and commercial law

unicameral National People's Congress or Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui (2,979 seats; members elected by municipal, regional, and provincial people's congresses to serve five-year terms) elections: last held NA December-NA February 1998 (next to be held late 2002-NA March 2003) election results: percent of vote-NA; seats-NA

Beijing

National Day, 1 October (1949)

Chinese Communist Party (CCP), JIANG Zemin, General Secretary of the Central Committee; eight registered small parties controlled by CCP

no meaningful political opposition groups exist

18 years of age; universal

People's Liberation Army (PLA), which includes the Ground Forces, Navy (includes Marines and Naval Aviation), Air Force, Second Artillery Corps (the strategic missile force), People's Armed Police (internal security troops, nominally subordinate to Ministry of Public Security, but included by the Chinese as part of the "armed forces" and considered to be an adjunct to the PLA in wartime)

the officially announced 1998 figure is 91 billion yuan, but China's defense expenditures are almost certainly two to three times the announced budget; note-conversion of the defense budget into US dollars using the current exchange rate could produce misleading results

NA%

males age 15-49: 359,057,859 (1998 est.)

males: 197,553,118 (1998 est.)

18 years of age

males: 9,553,823 (1998 est.)

0-14 years: 26% (male 169,347,516; female 149,897,253) 15-64 years: 68% (male 431,164,591; female 404,513,208) 65 years and over: 6% (male 38,398,920; female 43,593,170) (July 1998 est.)

15.73 births/1,000 population (1998 est.)

6.99 deaths/1,000 population (1998 est.)

Han Chinese 91.9%, Zhuang, Uygur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu, Mongol, Buyi, Korean, and other nationalities 8.1%

45.46 deaths/1,000 live births (1998 est.)

Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect), Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghaiese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese), Xiang, Gan, Hakka dialects, minority languages (see Ethnic divisions entry)

total population: 69.59 years male: 68.32 years female: 71.06 years (1998 est.)

definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 81.5% male: 89.9% female: 72.7% (1995 est.)

noun: Chinese (singular and plural) adjective: Chinese

-0.41 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1998 est.)

1,236,914,658 (July 1998 est.)

0.83% (1998 est.)

Daoism (Taoism), Buddhism, Muslim 2%-3%, Christian 1% (est.) note: officially atheist, but traditionally pragmatic and eclectic

at birth: 1.15 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.13 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.07 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.88 male(s)/female (1998 est.)

1.8 children born/woman (1998 est.)

boundary with India in dispute; two disputed sections of the boundary with Russia remain to be settled; most of the boundary with Tajikistan in dispute; 33-km section of boundary with North Korea in the Paektu-san (mountain) area is indefinite; involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; maritime boundary dispute with Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin; Paracel Islands occupied by China, but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; claims Japanese-administered Senkaku-shoto (Senkaku Islands/Diaoyu Tai), as does Taiwan; sections of land border with Vietnam are indefinite

major transshipment point for heroin produced in the Golden Triangle; growing domestic drug abuse problem CHRISTMAS ISLAND (territory of Australia)

206 (1996 est.)

total: 192 over 3,047 m: 18 2,438 to 3,047 m: 65 1,524 to 2,437 m: 90 914 to 1,523 m: 13 under 914 m: 6 (1996 est.)

total: 14 1,524 to 2,437 m: 8 914 to 1,523 m: 5 under 914 m: 1 (1996 est.)

total: 1.18 million km paved: 241,300 km unpaved: 938,700 km (1998 est.)

total: 1,708 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 16,139,185 GRT/24,154,260 DWT ships by type: barge carrier 2, bulk 313, cargo 858, chemical tanker 15, combination bulk 10, container 118, liquefied gas tanker 13, multifunction large-load carrier 5, oil tanker 231, passenger 6, passenger-cargo 45, refrigerated cargo 25, roll-on/roll-off cargo 24, short-sea passenger 43 note: China owns an additional 307 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 11,648,133 DWT operating under the registries of Cyprus, Hong Kong, Liberia, Malta, Marshall Islands, Panama, Singapore, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Vanuatu (1997 est.)

crude oil 9,070 km; petroleum products 560 km; natural gas 9,383 km (1998)

Dalian, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Haikou, Huangpu, Lianyungang, Nanjing, Nantong, Ningbo, Qingdao, Qinhuangdao, Shanghai, Shantou, Tianjin, Xiamen, Xingang, Yantai, Zhanjiang

total: 64,900 km (including 5,400 km of provincial "local" rails) standard gauge: 61,300 km 1.435-m gauge (10,400 km electrified; 18,540 km double track) narrow gauge: 3,600 km 0.750-m gauge local industrial lines (1998 est.)

138,600 km; about 110,600 km navigable